Grade Contract (A Learning Concept)
Webster (1991) defines contract as, "an agreement between one or more parties for the doing or not doing of something specified" (p. 295-296). Webster (1991) also defines learning as, "knowledge acquired by systematic study in any field of scholarly application" (p. 772). By combining these two definitions we can define contract learning as an agreement between a student and institution or faculty member to acquire knowledge systematically either in the classroom or independently. The problem with this definition is that it has very legalistic connotations. Many people object or rebel to this and, therefore, many users of learning contracts call them "learning plans", "learning commitments", "study plans", "learning agreements", or "self-development plans" (Knowles, 1986).
Simply stated, the learning contract specifies what is to be learned, how it is to be learned and how learning will be verified (Fox , 1983). Neal R. Berte (1975) posits that learning contracts, though not binding legal documents in the strictly legal sense of contract, are written agreements or commitments reached between a student and a faculty member regarding a particular amount of student work or learning on the one hand and the amount of institutional reward or credit for this work on the other. A more detailed statement of what a learning contract specifies is needed, however, if we as faculty members are going to use them. I found that Malcolm Knowles provides the best information. According to Knowles (1986) a learning contract typically specifies:
1. the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to be acquired by the learner (learning objectives);
2. how these objectives are to be accomplished (learning resources and strategies);
3. the target date for their accomplishment;
4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the objectives have been accomplished; and
5. how this evidence will be judged or validated. In academic settings the contract also specifies how much credit is to be awarded and what grade is to be given (p.38).
Thompson and Poppen (1972, p.118) propose that contract grading allows the instructor to incorporate a number of learning principles into grade contracts. They suggest that the following principles are manifested through contract grading (Newcomb & Warmbrod, 1974, p. 3):
1. the learner has both choice and voice in selecting alternatives for meeting learning objectives (the learner is more apt to become totally involved in a project which he or she has helped select and plan);
2. the learner is given opportunities to exercise responsibility through making commitments to complete personal learning goals;
3. personal involvement in learning is stressed through individualized and independent learning activities;
4. the teacher refrains from giving excessive directions (too much direction from the teacher usually results in apathetic conformity, defiance, scapegoating, or withdrawal);
5. the differential learning styles of students are considered in providing alternatives to learning;
6. competition with self is stressed over competition with others, and cooperation with others becomes an acceptable peer learning activity;
7. the learner feels a sense of freedom from the threat of failure;
8. the learning task falls within the learner's range of challenge -- that area where the task is neither too easy nor too difficult and the probability for success is good, but not certain;
9. there are opportunities for novel and stimulating learning experiences;
10. at least some of the purposes, objectives, and expectations of the course are defined in behavioral terms which clarify the learning task;
11. progress is learning depends to a considerable extent on how the learner perceives (through reinforcement or encouragement) the appropriateness of his or her efforts to accomplish the learning objectives, rewarded behaviors are naturally more likely to be repeated;
12. the learner receives feedback on the appropriateness of his or her efforts through the facility he has gained in self-evaluation;
13. learning is generalized to other life situations (generalization is most likely to occur when the learner has achieved the intrinsic reward of feeling a sense of self-satisfaction in achieving his or her objectives).
Contract grading can be particularly useful in a classroom setting. According to Frymier (1965), "Allowing students to decide which grade they wish to strive for, which activities they will engage in, and how they will demonstrate that they have satisfactorily completed their studies permits a teacher to seize upon powerful motivating forces within individual students. No one has to try for an "A." Likewise, anyone can try. This notion shifts responsibility for learning from the teacher to the student, but at the same time offers an incentive by insuring success under known conditions. Students are challenged without being threatened. Students are almost never dissatisfied with grades, whatever they may be" (pp. 263, 264).
Sample contracts can be found here to use for some guidelines. You can create your contract in other ways, being sure that you think about the components of a WRITING TASK ANALYSIS: What is the type of document to be written; what is the document's purpose; who is the audience.
Sample #1
Sample #2
Simply stated, the learning contract specifies what is to be learned, how it is to be learned and how learning will be verified (Fox , 1983). Neal R. Berte (1975) posits that learning contracts, though not binding legal documents in the strictly legal sense of contract, are written agreements or commitments reached between a student and a faculty member regarding a particular amount of student work or learning on the one hand and the amount of institutional reward or credit for this work on the other. A more detailed statement of what a learning contract specifies is needed, however, if we as faculty members are going to use them. I found that Malcolm Knowles provides the best information. According to Knowles (1986) a learning contract typically specifies:
1. the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to be acquired by the learner (learning objectives);
2. how these objectives are to be accomplished (learning resources and strategies);
3. the target date for their accomplishment;
4. what evidence will be presented to demonstrate that the objectives have been accomplished; and
5. how this evidence will be judged or validated. In academic settings the contract also specifies how much credit is to be awarded and what grade is to be given (p.38).
Thompson and Poppen (1972, p.118) propose that contract grading allows the instructor to incorporate a number of learning principles into grade contracts. They suggest that the following principles are manifested through contract grading (Newcomb & Warmbrod, 1974, p. 3):
1. the learner has both choice and voice in selecting alternatives for meeting learning objectives (the learner is more apt to become totally involved in a project which he or she has helped select and plan);
2. the learner is given opportunities to exercise responsibility through making commitments to complete personal learning goals;
3. personal involvement in learning is stressed through individualized and independent learning activities;
4. the teacher refrains from giving excessive directions (too much direction from the teacher usually results in apathetic conformity, defiance, scapegoating, or withdrawal);
5. the differential learning styles of students are considered in providing alternatives to learning;
6. competition with self is stressed over competition with others, and cooperation with others becomes an acceptable peer learning activity;
7. the learner feels a sense of freedom from the threat of failure;
8. the learning task falls within the learner's range of challenge -- that area where the task is neither too easy nor too difficult and the probability for success is good, but not certain;
9. there are opportunities for novel and stimulating learning experiences;
10. at least some of the purposes, objectives, and expectations of the course are defined in behavioral terms which clarify the learning task;
11. progress is learning depends to a considerable extent on how the learner perceives (through reinforcement or encouragement) the appropriateness of his or her efforts to accomplish the learning objectives, rewarded behaviors are naturally more likely to be repeated;
12. the learner receives feedback on the appropriateness of his or her efforts through the facility he has gained in self-evaluation;
13. learning is generalized to other life situations (generalization is most likely to occur when the learner has achieved the intrinsic reward of feeling a sense of self-satisfaction in achieving his or her objectives).
Contract grading can be particularly useful in a classroom setting. According to Frymier (1965), "Allowing students to decide which grade they wish to strive for, which activities they will engage in, and how they will demonstrate that they have satisfactorily completed their studies permits a teacher to seize upon powerful motivating forces within individual students. No one has to try for an "A." Likewise, anyone can try. This notion shifts responsibility for learning from the teacher to the student, but at the same time offers an incentive by insuring success under known conditions. Students are challenged without being threatened. Students are almost never dissatisfied with grades, whatever they may be" (pp. 263, 264).
Sample contracts can be found here to use for some guidelines. You can create your contract in other ways, being sure that you think about the components of a WRITING TASK ANALYSIS: What is the type of document to be written; what is the document's purpose; who is the audience.
Sample #1
Sample #2
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